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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Page One</h2>
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<h2>Final Exam</h2>
<p>Welcome to the Final Exam for 12.340x. This exam is designed to take 3 hours; it will be open until 12:00 UTC on May 22, 2020. You must submit all answers before that time.</p>
<p>The exam is composed of 36 equally-weighted questions for which you are allowed one attempt each. The exam is spread over four pages, each page has nine questions. You should attempt all the questions.</p>
<p>Be careful to ensure your answers are in their final form before checking each question, as you will not be allowed to try again if you make a mistake. You may go back and review earlier parts of the course during the exam. However, you may <b>not</b> collaborate with other students (accordingly, the discussion forum is now closed).</p>
<p>Good luck!</p>
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1
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<p>Write down an expression for "F", the total radiative energy flux per unit area from an ideal blackbody radiator, as a function of its absolute temperature "T" and the Stefan-Boltzmann constant "sigma". Explicitly indicate any mathematical operations with the appropriate symbol (e.g. '+', '-', '*', '/', '^').</p>
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<span>[mathjaxinline]F [/mathjaxinline] =</span>
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<div id="display_890a1ce0fbf9465594609619f280022d_2_1" class="equation">`{::}`</div>
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2
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<p>Which one of these scientists is generally credited as being the first to postulate that our atmosphere provides a greenhouse effect?</p>
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<text>Isaac Newton</text>
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<text>Jean Baptiste Fourier</text>
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<text>John Tyndall</text>
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<text>Albert Einstein</text>
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<p>What is the main reason that summer is generally warmer than winter? </p>
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<text>The Earth is closer to the sun in summer.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_5385c8fa63444f94a9040cda0c0745ec_2_1" id="input_5385c8fa63444f94a9040cda0c0745ec_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="5385c8fa63444f94a9040cda0c0745ec_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_5385c8fa63444f94a9040cda0c0745ec_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5385c8fa63444f94a9040cda0c0745ec_2_1">
<text>Without snow on the ground, the albedo is lower in summer.</text>
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<text>Sunlight incident on the summer hemisphere is more nearly perpendicular to the Earth's surface, so that more sunlight is absorbed per unit area.</text>
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<text>The atmosphere has a greater concentration of water vapor in summer.</text>
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4
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<p>Which one of these scientists is generally credited as being the first to discover which atmospheric gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect?</p>
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<text>John Tyndall</text>
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<text>Svante Arrhenius</text>
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<text>Max Planck</text>
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<text>James Maxwell</text>
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5
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<p>Write down an expression for the average amount of sunlight absorbed by the Earth per unit surface area, F<sub>s</sub>, as a function of the solar constant "S" and the planetary albedo "alpha". Explicitly indicate any mathematical operations with the appropriate symbol (e.g. '+', '-', '*', '/', '^').</p>
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<span>[mathjaxinline]F_s [/mathjaxinline] =</span>
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<div id="display_f12f6070f2a940b88c777ce73df08148_2_1" class="equation">`{::}`</div>
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6
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<p>To the nearest whole number, what is the ratio of the average amount of infrared back-radiation from the atmosphere and clouds absorbed by the Earth's surface, to the average amount of sunlight absorbed by the Earth's surface? </p>
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<div id="display_011e782b9d124db49f546c513602fd14_2_1" class="equation">`{::}`</div>
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7
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<p>Most of what we usually call "weather" occurs in which of these layers of the atmosphere?</p>
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<div class="wrapper-problem-response" tabindex="-1" aria-label="Question 1" role="group"><div class="choicegroup capa_inputtype" id="inputtype_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1">
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<input type="radio" name="input_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1" id="input_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1">
<text>The thermosphere.</text>
</label>
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<input type="radio" name="input_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1" id="input_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_18f873554eec4f4791d0ec7d9cf279e2_2_1">
<text>The mesosphere.</text>
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<text>The stratosphere.</text>
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<text>The troposphere.</text>
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8
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<p>On average, which one of these processes is primarily responsible for cooling the Earth's surface, to balance incoming absorbed sunlight?</p>
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<text><i>Net</i> infrared radiation</text>
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<text>Turbulent flux of sensible heat away from the surface</text>
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<text>Evaporation from the surface</text>
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<text>Ocean currents</text>
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9
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<p>Which one of these scientists is generally credited for being the first to estimate the average surface warming that would occur if the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere were doubled?</p>
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<text>Jean Baptiste Fourier</text>
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<text>John Tyndall</text>
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<text>Svante Arrhenius</text>
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<text>Jule Charney</text>
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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Page Two</h2>
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10
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<p>Physically, why are the greenhouse gases, like water vapor and carbon dioxide, so much more effective in absorbing solar and/or infrared radiation than are oxygen and nitrogen?</p>
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<input type="radio" name="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1" id="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1">
<text>The concentrations of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere are greater than the concentrations of oxygen and nitrogen.</text>
</label>
</div>
<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1" id="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1">
<text>Greenhouse gases have many more degrees of freedom, such as rotational and vibrational transitions, in interacting with radiation than do nitrogen and oxygen, owing to the greater complexity of their molecular structure.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1" id="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1">
<text>The molecular weights of greenhouse gases are greater than those of oxygen and nitrogen.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1" id="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_a685c7a5ab2344e98c5ed49040571b40_2_1">
<text>The larger physical size of more complex molecules means that they can interact more readily with infrared radiation.</text>
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11
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<p>Which of these is responsible for most of the Earth's albedo?</p>
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<text>Clouds</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1" id="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1">
<text>Sea ice</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1" id="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1">
<text>Land ice</text>
</label>
</div>
<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1" id="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_f1d23314e6ee40b18711d3e838ece6a4_2_1">
<text>Deserts</text>
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12
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<p>In a dry atmosphere, which one of these expresses a condition for instability to convection?</p>
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<div class="wrapper-problem-response" tabindex="-1" aria-label="Question 1" role="group"><div class="choicegroup capa_inputtype" id="inputtype_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1">
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<input type="radio" name="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1" id="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1">
<text>Temperature decreases with altitude.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1" id="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1">
<text>Temperature increases with altitude.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1" id="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1">
<text>Pressure decreases with altitude.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1" id="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_60fe86e3bf90462da2aba4b3ee771416_2_1">
<text>Entropy decreases with altitude.</text>
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13
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<p>Why does temperature increase with height in the stratosphere?</p>
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<input type="radio" name="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1" id="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1">
<text>Absorption of sunlight by water vapor increases with altitude.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1" id="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1">
<text>Ozone absorbs ultraviolet solar radiation and its concentration increases with altitude in the stratosphere.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1" id="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1">
<text>There is more carbon dioxide in the upper stratosphere.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1" id="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_ae52f0a92d0e4349a00497a7c8006ccd_2_1">
<text>Aerosols in the upper stratosphere absorb sunlight there.</text>
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14
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<p>Before the advent of life, the Earth's greenhouse gases predominantly came from:</p>
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<text>The Sun</text>
</label>
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<input type="radio" name="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1" id="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1">
<text>Volcanoes</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1" id="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1">
<text>The Earth's core</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1" id="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_c29d20916fdc418bb9f81d80c4094e8f_2_1">
<text>Meteorites</text>
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15
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<p>On Earth, atmospheric particles (aerosols) predominantly...</p>
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<div class="wrapper-problem-response" tabindex="-1" aria-label="Question 1" role="group"><div class="choicegroup capa_inputtype" id="inputtype_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1">
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<input type="radio" name="input_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1" id="input_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1">
<text>reflect solar radiation back to space.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1" id="input_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_eb2c4e27fcb54ebdb8bc39f4aa269ce4_2_1">
<text>reflect terrestrial radiation back to the surface.</text>
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16
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<p>An increase in the number of particles in the atmosphere...</p>
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<text>can increase cloud albedo by creating more droplets.</text>
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<text>can increase cloud lifetime by suppressing rain.</text>
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<text>All of the above</text>
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17
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<p>To the nearest factor of 10 (i.e., 0, 10, 20, 30,...), write down the latitude (in degrees) at which, on June 21st, the daily averaged incident solar radiation per unit area at the top of the atmosphere peaks (i.e., is a global maximum). <b>Do not include units in your answer.</b></p>
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18
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<p>During the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) 55 million years ago, which of the following is NOT suggested by geological evidence to have occurred?</p>
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<text>Geologically rapid (&lt; 10,000 years) release of &gt; 1000 Gt carbon into the ocean and atmosphere</text>
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<text>Global warming of several degrees C</text>
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<text>Rapid (&lt; 10,000 years) return to baseline temperatures due to removal of CO<sub>2</sub> by natural processes</text>
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<text>Acidification of the ocean</text>
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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Page Three</h2>
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19
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<p>In terms of its effect on annual mean surface air temperature, which of these greenhouse gases has the greatest aggregate effect?</p>
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<input type="radio" name="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1" id="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1">
<text>Nitrous oxide</text>
</label>
</div>
<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1" id="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1">
<text>Carbon dioxide</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1" id="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1">
<text>Ozone</text>
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<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1" id="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_db980fbb6ddb481f8f15fe7496bf9d55_2_1">
<text>Water vapor</text>
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<h3 class="hd hd-3 problem-header" id="22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182-problem-title" aria-describedby="block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182-problem-progress" tabindex="-1">
20
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<div class="problem-progress" id="block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182-problem-progress"></div>
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<p>It has been suggested that Mars once had liquid water on its surface. If so, this was probably mainly because the Martian atmosphere likely had...</p>
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<div class="wrapper-problem-response" tabindex="-1" aria-label="Question 1" role="group"><div class="choicegroup capa_inputtype" id="inputtype_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1">
<fieldset aria-describedby="status_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1">
<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1" id="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1">
<text>more clouds than it does presently.</text>
</label>
</div>
<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1" id="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1">
<text>less oxygen than it does presently.</text>
</label>
</div>
<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1" id="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1">
<text>more carbon dioxide than it does presently.</text>
</label>
</div>
<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1" id="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_22e0c3c5896c4e8994704a10bc9e7182_2_1">
<text>fewer particles than it does presently.</text>
</label>
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data-problem-id="block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e" data-url="/courses/course-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020/xblock/block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e/handler/xmodule_handler"
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<h3 class="hd hd-3 problem-header" id="181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e-problem-title" aria-describedby="block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e-problem-progress" tabindex="-1">
21
</h3>
<div class="problem-progress" id="block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e-problem-progress"></div>
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<p>What is the average residence time of a molecule of water in the atmosphere? </p>
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<div class="wrapper-problem-response" tabindex="-1" aria-label="Question 1" role="group"><div class="choicegroup capa_inputtype" id="inputtype_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1">
<fieldset aria-describedby="status_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1">
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<input type="radio" name="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1" id="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1">
<text>3 days</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1" id="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1">
<text>2 weeks</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1" id="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1">
<text>1 year</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1" id="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_181db9c007714295b0dfa6a38f7b811e_2_1">
<text>20 years</text>
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22
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<p>Which one of these processes is generally thought to be primarily responsible for the timing of the glacial-interglacial cycles over the past few million years? </p>
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<text>Variations in earth's orbit around the sun and in the tilt of its rotation axis</text>
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<text>Variations in solar radiative output</text>
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<text>Changes in the greenhouse gas content of the atmosphere</text>
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<text>Changes in ocean circulation</text>
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23
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<p>Which one of these statements best describes the effect of clouds on the mean surface air temperature of Earth? </p>
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<text>By reflecting sunlight, clouds always cool the surface.</text>
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<text>By absorbing and re-radiating infrared radiation, clouds always warm the surface.</text>
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<text>Depending on their altitude and optical properties, clouds can cool or warm the surface.</text>
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<text>Clouds have only a very small effect on surface temperature.</text>
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24
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<p>Comprehensive calculations of radiative equilibrium yield surface temperatures that are somewhat warmer than observed, and tropopause temperatures that are somewhat colder than observed. What is the main reason for this? </p>
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<text>Radiative equilibrium neglects the effects of large-scale circulation of the atmosphere and ocean.</text>
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<text>Radiative equilibrium calculations specify cloudiness rather than including it as part of the solution.</text>
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<text>Radiative equilibrium calculations often neglect aerosols.</text>
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<text>Dry and moist convection are neglected.</text>
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25
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<p>What is the <i>principal</i> cause of the large-scale circulation of the ocean?</p>
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<text>Lunar and solar tides</text>
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<text>Surface winds</text>
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<text>Horizontal gradients of ocean temperature</text>
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<text>Horizontal gradients of salinity</text>
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26
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<p>Which of these statements best describes Sverdrup balance in the oceans?</p>
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<text>A balance between pressure gradients and Coriolis accelerations.</text>
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<text>A balance between the vertical pressure gradient and gravity.</text>
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<text>A balance between the torque produced by the curl of the surface wind stress and advection of planetary vorticity by meridional flow of water.</text>
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<text>A balance between Coriolis acceleration and meridional advection of zonal momentum.</text>
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27
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<p>Arrange the following reservoirs in order of their carbon content, from <b><i>least</i></b> to <b><i>greatest</i></b>.</p>
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28
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<p>Over the next 100 years, which of the reservoirs listed below is predicted to play the largest role in removing anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere? </p>
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<text>Rocks/subsurface (including fossil fuels)</text>
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<text>Plants</text>
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<text>Ocean</text>
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<text>Soils</text>
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29
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<p>Where will the greatest amount of anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> end up over the next 1 million years?</p>
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<text>In soils</text>
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<text>As fossil fuels</text>
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<text>Dissolved in the ocean</text>
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<text>As calcium carbonate in seafloor sediments</text>
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30
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<p>Which of the following best describes why Hadley circulations are limited to the Earth's tropics?</p>
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<text>Outside the tropics, Coriolis accelerations are strong enough to balance temperature gradients (through the thermal wind relation).</text>
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<text>It is too cold outside the tropics.</text>
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<text>There is not enough water vapor outside the tropics.</text>
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<text>The lack of eddy activity outside Earth's tropics prevents overturning circulations from developing.</text>
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31
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<p>Which of these atmospheric phenomena is primarily responsible for meridional atmospheric transport of heat in middle and high latitudes?</p>
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<text>The Hadley Circulation</text>
</label>
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<text>Moist convection</text>
</label>
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<input type="radio" name="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1" id="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1">
<text>The Ferrel Cell</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1" id="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1">
<text>Stationary planetary waves excited by air flow over mountains</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1" id="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1_choice_4" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_4"/><label id="5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1-choice_4-label" for="input_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1_choice_4" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5fbb7ec653314ff0b6914465881935dc_2_1">
<text>Travelling baroclinic waves with typical horizontal dimensions of a few thousand kilometers</text>
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32
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<p> Satellite and weather balloon observations of the <b>upper stratosphere</b> show that it has been cooling over the past few decades, even though the troposphere has been warming. Which of these trends best explains this observation? </p>
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<input type="radio" name="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1" id="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1">
<text>Decreasing ozone content of the stratosphere</text>
</label>
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<div class="field">
<input type="radio" name="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1" id="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1">
<text>Increasing carbon dioxide concentration of the atmosphere (including the stratosphere)</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1" id="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1">
<text>Decreasing amplitude of the 11-year solar cycle</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1" id="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_5e396507951644e59edae190ec5ca5bf_2_1">
<text>Changing aerosol content of the stratosphere</text>
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data-problem-id="block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1" data-url="/courses/course-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020/xblock/block-v1:MITx+12.340x+1T2020+type@problem+block@8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1/handler/xmodule_handler"
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33
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<p> Theoretically, which best describes the dependence of equilibrium surface temperature on atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration? </p>
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<fieldset aria-describedby="status_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1">
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<input type="radio" name="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1" id="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_0" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_0"/><label id="8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1-choice_0-label" for="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_0" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1">
<text>Equilibrium temperature increases linearly with CO<sub>2</sub> content.</text>
</label>
</div>
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<input type="radio" name="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1" id="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_1" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_1"/><label id="8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1-choice_1-label" for="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_1" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1">
<text>Equilibrium temperature increases quadratically with CO<sub>2</sub> content.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1" id="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_2" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_2"/><label id="8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1-choice_2-label" for="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_2" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1">
<text>Equilibrium temperature increases logarithmically with CO<sub>2</sub> content.</text>
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<input type="radio" name="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1" id="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_3" class="field-input input-radio" value="choice_3"/><label id="8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1-choice_3-label" for="input_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1_choice_3" class="response-label field-label label-inline" aria-describedby="status_8688b08bc7b4449eb7ec843ce97cd9c1_2_1">
<text>Equilibrium temperature increases exponentially with CO<sub>2</sub> content.</text>
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34
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<p> Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a greenhouse gas takes into account </p>
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<text>The ability of the gas to absorb terrestrial radiation</text>
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<text>The gas lifetime in the atmosphere</text>
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<text>A specific time horizon</text>
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<text>All of the above</text>
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35
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<p> Which of the following statements is true? </p>
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<text>Water vapor and sea ice albedo are thought to be positive feedbacks in the climate system; surface temperature, atmospheric temperature, and atmospheric temperature lapse rate are negative feedbacks, while the sign of cloud feedback is uncertain.</text>
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<text>Cloud feedback and surface temperature are negative feedbacks in the climate system, while atmospheric temperature lapse rate and sea ice albedo are positive feedbacks.</text>
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<text>Water vapor is a strong negative feedback in the climate system.</text>
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<text>The sign of cloud feedback depends on fractional cloud cover.</text>
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36
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<p> Which of the following best describes a climate model as it is usually defined today? </p>
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<text>A physical model of the earth's climate system made of plastic parts and used to illustrate how the climate system works.</text>
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<text>A laboratory apparatus containing rotating fluids and subject to heating/and or cooling.</text>
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<text>A person who displays (so as to market) clothes appropriate to different climates.</text>
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<text>A computer program that solves equations for flows of the atmosphere and oceans, radiative and convective heat transfer, clouds, land surface properties, ice, and other processes and characteristics such as atmospheric chemistry and aerosols, and used to understand and quantify how the climate system works and how it might respond to changing radiative forcing.</text>
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