Qualitative Research Methods: Data Coding and Analysis

<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@d2df6ca10e524664b92a0f98c8e853ff" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Read: Intro to Social Science</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@b964b111187c46629ea94983f89de691"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@b964b111187c46629ea94983f89de691" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Read: Intro to Social Science</span></strong></h3> <p></p> <p>In the first module of this series “<a href="https://courses.mitxonline.mit.edu/learn/course/course-v1:MITxT+21A.819.1x+3T2021/block-v1:MITxT+21A.819.1x+3T2021+type@sequential+block@08bf5f489b884c49b63b52fa571cc405/block-v1:MITxT+21A.819.1x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@8b4f929c3c9343718106fb76a2f1f441" target="_blank">Qualitative Research Methods: Conversational Interviewing</a>”, I introduced the methods of qualitative social science by first identifying and describing the SCIENCE that social scientists aspire to achieve, an aspiration we share with physical and biological sciences. </p> <p>As a refresher, we invite you watch the lectures on the SCIENCE of social science. If you feel like you need more updating on the material we covered in the first class, particularly on establishing validity in qualitative research, we invite you to review those videos in the first module. </p> <p></p> </div> </div> </div> </div>

<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@c61fe55c795949309a1ae2034b9b07f4" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Watch: Thinking like a Qualitative Researcher</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@d3347f5217dd4faa87d699ab89f59dd9"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@d3347f5217dd4faa87d699ab89f59dd9" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Watch: Thinking like a Qualitative Researcher</span></strong></h3> </div> </div> <div class="vert vert-1" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-video xmodule_display xmodule_VideoBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="video" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "Video"} </script> <h3 class="hd hd-2">Video</h3> <div id="video_ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55" class="video closed" data-metadata='{"autoplay": false, "speed": null, "duration": 0.0, "generalSpeed": 1.0, "lmsRootURL": "https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu", "ytTestTimeout": 1500, "showCaptions": "true", "savedVideoPosition": 0.0, "completionEnabled": false, "ytMetadataEndpoint": "", "sources": ["https://d3tsb3m56iwvoq.cloudfront.net/transcoded/0e0c9d3d663843be9b5b5f180c10d094/video__index.m3u8"], "autohideHtml5": false, "autoAdvance": false, "transcriptAvailableTranslationsUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55/handler/transcript/available_translations", "end": 0.0, "saveStateUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55/handler/xmodule_handler/save_user_state", "saveStateEnabled": false, "completionPercentage": 0.95, "ytApiUrl": "https://www.youtube.com/iframe_api", "captionDataDir": null, "transcriptLanguages": {"en": "English"}, "publishCompletionUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55/handler/publish_completion", "recordedYoutubeIsAvailable": true, "start": 0.0, "transcriptLanguage": "en", "transcriptTranslationUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55/handler/transcript/translation/__lang__", "prioritizeHls": false, "streams": "", "poster": null}' data-bumper-metadata='null' data-autoadvance-enabled="False" data-poster='null' tabindex="-1" > <div class="focus_grabber first"></div> <div class="tc-wrapper"> <div class="video-wrapper"> <span tabindex="0" class="spinner" aria-hidden="false" aria-label="Loading video player"></span> <span tabindex="-1" class="btn-play fa fa-youtube-play fa-2x is-hidden" aria-hidden="true" aria-label="Play video"></span> <div class="video-player-pre"></div> <div class="video-player"> <div id="ec6c1823a0b84d4e90e5184384863e55"></div> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-error is-hidden">No playable video sources found.</h4> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-hls-error is-hidden"> Your browser does not support this video format. 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<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@f3f34e667dde4e9a8ef33856d782d13b" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Watch: Unpacking Cultural Meaning</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@f1a63629eec14576bb9d241fbb58c7a9"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@f1a63629eec14576bb9d241fbb58c7a9" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Watch: Unpacking Cultural Meaning</span></strong></h3> </div> </div> <div class="vert vert-1" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-video xmodule_display xmodule_VideoBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="video" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "Video"} </script> <h3 class="hd hd-2">Video</h3> <div id="video_4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd" class="video closed" data-metadata='{"autoplay": false, "speed": null, "duration": 0.0, "generalSpeed": 1.0, "lmsRootURL": "https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu", "ytTestTimeout": 1500, "showCaptions": "true", "savedVideoPosition": 0.0, "completionEnabled": false, "ytMetadataEndpoint": "", "sources": ["https://d3tsb3m56iwvoq.cloudfront.net/transcoded/7975311387a44a1fafda95669c0af528/video__index.m3u8"], "autohideHtml5": false, "autoAdvance": false, "transcriptAvailableTranslationsUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd/handler/transcript/available_translations", "end": 0.0, "saveStateUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd/handler/xmodule_handler/save_user_state", "saveStateEnabled": false, "completionPercentage": 0.95, "ytApiUrl": "https://www.youtube.com/iframe_api", "captionDataDir": null, "transcriptLanguages": {"en": "English"}, "publishCompletionUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd/handler/publish_completion", "recordedYoutubeIsAvailable": true, "start": 0.0, "transcriptLanguage": "en", "transcriptTranslationUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd/handler/transcript/translation/__lang__", "prioritizeHls": false, "streams": "", "poster": null}' data-bumper-metadata='null' data-autoadvance-enabled="False" data-poster='null' tabindex="-1" > <div class="focus_grabber first"></div> <div class="tc-wrapper"> <div class="video-wrapper"> <span tabindex="0" class="spinner" aria-hidden="false" aria-label="Loading video player"></span> <span tabindex="-1" class="btn-play fa fa-youtube-play fa-2x is-hidden" aria-hidden="true" aria-label="Play video"></span> <div class="video-player-pre"></div> <div class="video-player"> <div id="4607e8c54532409b8908b5c6f7190bdd"></div> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-error is-hidden">No playable video sources found.</h4> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-hls-error is-hidden"> Your browser does not support this video format. 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However, when biologists return to record that school's song say one year later, the song is completely different. The explanation for this change is that the characteristic song is the result of individual whales hearing and sharing in singing each other's song; each rendition is shaped by the social structure that is the whale song. But at the same time each individual has enough autonomy to add small variations and innovations to the main theme; the continuously produced whale song is a resource and medium through which each individual and unique whale can creatively reproduce the song. This creative interpretation and selection is not enough to completely transform the song, that is and remains the total medium, but it is enough to change the song just a little.Other whales in the school pick up the general song, incorporating as it now does, the slight modifications of those whales who have been singing. The result is that after a period of time the micro-contributions of the individual whales transform the very totality of the whale song which has given and continues to give shape and general direction to their individual action.”" /></p> </div> </div> </div> </div>

<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@b145117990d0451fb4df11e39bfcddb2" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Read: Systems of Culture</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@ab49e7254dcf457eabef1b36252f40e8"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@ab49e7254dcf457eabef1b36252f40e8" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Read: Systems of Culture</span></strong></h3> <p style="font-size: 16px;">These images offer schematic visual representations of cultural meaning – the pattern (or system of meanings) that are learned by competent social actors as they grow up and become adult members of a society. </p> <p style="font-size: 16px;"><img height="693" width="764" src="/assets/courseware/v1/69d2a54c8a15793a4f6db91ab5b2d195/asset-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@asset+block/tender.png" alt="Network analysis of the word "tender", showing all words associated with the word tender" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">In the network image, the wide-ranging associations with the word ‘tender’ in English, some more common, others less so. To participate in and understand a conversation about cooking steaks might involve the word “tender,” referring to the fat content and quality of the meat. But, a discussion of purchasing real estate might also refer to making a ‘tender,’ meaning-making an offer to buy. If you talk about real estate when the other speaker is talking about meat, you will likely be thought strange, out of place, not knowing how to behave or make sense.</p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">Similarly, Google can generate a “word cloud” of frequent uses and associations for the word “networking.” </p> <p style="font-size: 16px;"><img height="362" width="702" src="/assets/courseware/v1/24ea23eb3c58964b1a9b721a170b8907/asset-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@asset+block/networking.png" alt="word cloud of the word "networking", showing commonly used words with networking (ie companies, career, research, fairs )" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">These associations – their frequency and connections – are what constitute the taken-for-granted culture, similar to knowing how to call and ride in an elevator to go to the floor you desire in a tall building. </p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">The lines in the network image or size and location of the words in the word cloud visually represent the systematic (repeated and discernible) connections and associations members of this culture know, often without explaining. </p> <p></p> </div> </div> </div> </div>

<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@1c372e0142b644a4a299685302af270d" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Watch: Intro to Qualitative Data Analysis</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@ddfc3e7d8d1840a28adcb74f7a116cb7"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@ddfc3e7d8d1840a28adcb74f7a116cb7" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Watch: Intro to Qualitative Data Analysis</span></strong></h3> </div> </div> <div class="vert vert-1" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-video xmodule_display xmodule_VideoBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="video" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "Video"} </script> <h3 class="hd hd-2">Video</h3> <div id="video_55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2" class="video closed" data-metadata='{"autoplay": false, "speed": null, "duration": 0.0, "generalSpeed": 1.0, "lmsRootURL": "https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu", "ytTestTimeout": 1500, "showCaptions": "true", "savedVideoPosition": 0.0, "completionEnabled": false, "ytMetadataEndpoint": "", "sources": ["https://d3tsb3m56iwvoq.cloudfront.net/transcoded/ae41966398e84228b375085e1d41a20d/video__index.m3u8"], "autohideHtml5": false, "autoAdvance": false, "transcriptAvailableTranslationsUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2/handler/transcript/available_translations", "end": 0.0, "saveStateUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2/handler/xmodule_handler/save_user_state", "saveStateEnabled": false, "completionPercentage": 0.95, "ytApiUrl": "https://www.youtube.com/iframe_api", "captionDataDir": null, "transcriptLanguages": {"en": "English"}, "publishCompletionUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2/handler/publish_completion", "recordedYoutubeIsAvailable": true, "start": 0.0, "transcriptLanguage": "en", "transcriptTranslationUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2/handler/transcript/translation/__lang__", "prioritizeHls": false, "streams": "", "poster": null}' data-bumper-metadata='null' data-autoadvance-enabled="False" data-poster='null' tabindex="-1" > <div class="focus_grabber first"></div> <div class="tc-wrapper"> <div class="video-wrapper"> <span tabindex="0" class="spinner" aria-hidden="false" aria-label="Loading video player"></span> <span tabindex="-1" class="btn-play fa fa-youtube-play fa-2x is-hidden" aria-hidden="true" aria-label="Play video"></span> <div class="video-player-pre"></div> <div class="video-player"> <div id="55afb0fbc4924a3fa6418acbcd2af5f2"></div> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-error is-hidden">No playable video sources found.</h4> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-hls-error is-hidden"> Your browser does not support this video format. 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<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@909e57345bf347099bf2d0c35ff10445" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Watch: Intro to Qualitative Data Analysis (2)</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@92e4d8597bc74257b7371ef3481cda4d"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@92e4d8597bc74257b7371ef3481cda4d" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Watch: Intro to Qualitative Data Analysis (2)</span></strong></h3> </div> </div> <div class="vert vert-1" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-video xmodule_display xmodule_VideoBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="video" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "Video"} </script> <h3 class="hd hd-2">Video</h3> <div id="video_62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6" class="video closed" data-metadata='{"autoplay": false, "speed": null, "duration": 0.0, "generalSpeed": 1.0, "lmsRootURL": "https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu", "ytTestTimeout": 1500, "showCaptions": "true", "savedVideoPosition": 0.0, "completionEnabled": false, "ytMetadataEndpoint": "", "sources": ["https://d3tsb3m56iwvoq.cloudfront.net/transcoded/89113b5fd9b8445092176c8ed5752e93/video__index.m3u8"], "autohideHtml5": false, "autoAdvance": false, "transcriptAvailableTranslationsUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6/handler/transcript/available_translations", "end": 0.0, "saveStateUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6/handler/xmodule_handler/save_user_state", "saveStateEnabled": false, "completionPercentage": 0.95, "ytApiUrl": "https://www.youtube.com/iframe_api", "captionDataDir": null, "transcriptLanguages": {"en": "English"}, "publishCompletionUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6/handler/publish_completion", "recordedYoutubeIsAvailable": true, "start": 0.0, "transcriptLanguage": "en", "transcriptTranslationUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6/handler/transcript/translation/__lang__", "prioritizeHls": false, "streams": "", "poster": null}' data-bumper-metadata='null' data-autoadvance-enabled="False" data-poster='null' tabindex="-1" > <div class="focus_grabber first"></div> <div class="tc-wrapper"> <div class="video-wrapper"> <span tabindex="0" class="spinner" aria-hidden="false" aria-label="Loading video player"></span> <span tabindex="-1" class="btn-play fa fa-youtube-play fa-2x is-hidden" aria-hidden="true" aria-label="Play video"></span> <div class="video-player-pre"></div> <div class="video-player"> <div id="62f6928d89ab475ab67062e2d0364dd6"></div> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-error is-hidden">No playable video sources found.</h4> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-hls-error is-hidden"> Your browser does not support this video format. 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<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@d4b66a1f205a42e1bf53099ca251759e" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Read & Watch: Intro to Grounded Theory</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@07f604825e6b43d4a4e633abf88ce1e6"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@07f604825e6b43d4a4e633abf88ce1e6" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Read: Intro to Grounded Theory</span></strong></h3> <p></p> <p>In 1967, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss published what is now the classic text on the subject, <a href="http://www.sxf.uevora.pt/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Glaser_1967.pdf" target="_blank">The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research</a>. That work has been expanded and revised several times. In the last few years, there has been an abundance of new texts about qualitative methods, including instructional manuals as well as critical interpretations and epistemological debates. For this course, I rely heavily on Kathy Charmaz’s book, <a href="http://www.sxf.uevora.pt/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Charmaz_2006.pdf" target="_blank">Constructing Grounded Theory</a>; Miles, Huberman and Saldana <a href="https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/qualitative-data-analysis/book246128" target="_blank">Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook</a> and a marvelous theoretical exposition by Iddo Tavory and Stefan Timmermans, <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo18785947.html" target="_blank">Abductive Analysis: Theorizing Qualitative Research</a>, which I recommend. </p> <p>This course builds on the research method generally known as grounded theory. This way of analyzing data was developed within sociology and anthropology as researchers engaged in participant observation, conducted interviews, and searched archives and then organized their observations, interviews and documents to produce case studies, life histories, and ethnographies. As all the social sciences became more mature following WWII, scholars using qualitative data were challenged to become more transparent and systematic in their analyses. Grounded theory became the most widely regarded approach.</p> <p>We are not going deeply into debates about how much analysis and theory building is inductive and how much is deductive, but suffice to say that what I will present here is generally what Tavory and Timmermans refer to as Abductive Analysis, a combination of induction and deduction, discovering categories primarily through what is provided directly in the data while also importing concepts already developed elsewhere. These distinctions and uses will become clearer as we move along.</p> <p></p> <p></p> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Watch: Intro to Grounded Theory</span></strong></h3> </div> </div> <div class="vert vert-1" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-video xmodule_display xmodule_VideoBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="video" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "Video"} </script> <h3 class="hd hd-2">Video</h3> <div id="video_b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a" class="video closed" data-metadata='{"autoplay": false, "speed": null, "duration": 0.0, "generalSpeed": 1.0, "lmsRootURL": "https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu", "ytTestTimeout": 1500, "showCaptions": "true", "savedVideoPosition": 0.0, "completionEnabled": false, "ytMetadataEndpoint": "", "sources": ["https://d3tsb3m56iwvoq.cloudfront.net/transcoded/7764303cb22f453581ccb67e693e380c/video__index.m3u8"], "autohideHtml5": false, "autoAdvance": false, "transcriptAvailableTranslationsUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a/handler/transcript/available_translations", "end": 0.0, "saveStateUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a/handler/xmodule_handler/save_user_state", "saveStateEnabled": false, "completionPercentage": 0.95, "ytApiUrl": "https://www.youtube.com/iframe_api", "captionDataDir": null, "transcriptLanguages": {"en": "English"}, "publishCompletionUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a/handler/publish_completion", "recordedYoutubeIsAvailable": true, "start": 0.0, "transcriptLanguage": "en", "transcriptTranslationUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a/handler/transcript/translation/__lang__", "prioritizeHls": false, "streams": "", "poster": null}' data-bumper-metadata='null' data-autoadvance-enabled="False" data-poster='null' tabindex="-1" > <div class="focus_grabber first"></div> <div class="tc-wrapper"> <div class="video-wrapper"> <span tabindex="0" class="spinner" aria-hidden="false" aria-label="Loading video player"></span> <span tabindex="-1" class="btn-play fa fa-youtube-play fa-2x is-hidden" aria-hidden="true" aria-label="Play video"></span> <div class="video-player-pre"></div> <div class="video-player"> <div id="b31da8430e854163a696a18ac548257a"></div> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-error is-hidden">No playable video sources found.</h4> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-hls-error is-hidden"> Your browser does not support this video format. 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<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@cd47cbe08ac340f69677ea04486daee8" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">The Qualitative Research Process</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@9c99d0effaf641cf809d6f9be28dd5fa"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@9c99d0effaf641cf809d6f9be28dd5fa" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Watch: The Qualitative Research Process</span></strong></h3> </div> </div> <div class="vert vert-1" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-video xmodule_display xmodule_VideoBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="video" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "Video"} </script> <h3 class="hd hd-2">Video</h3> <div id="video_ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4" class="video closed" data-metadata='{"autoplay": false, "speed": null, "duration": 0.0, "generalSpeed": 1.0, "lmsRootURL": "https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu", "ytTestTimeout": 1500, "showCaptions": "true", "savedVideoPosition": 0.0, "completionEnabled": false, "ytMetadataEndpoint": "", "sources": ["https://d3tsb3m56iwvoq.cloudfront.net/transcoded/dc7709991be642c7baa32cc54ab028a9/video__index.m3u8"], "autohideHtml5": false, "autoAdvance": false, "transcriptAvailableTranslationsUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4/handler/transcript/available_translations", "end": 0.0, "saveStateUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4/handler/xmodule_handler/save_user_state", "saveStateEnabled": false, "completionPercentage": 0.95, "ytApiUrl": "https://www.youtube.com/iframe_api", "captionDataDir": null, "transcriptLanguages": {"en": "English"}, "publishCompletionUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4/handler/publish_completion", "recordedYoutubeIsAvailable": true, "start": 0.0, "transcriptLanguage": "en", "transcriptTranslationUrl": "/courses/course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021/xblock/block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@video+block@ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4/handler/transcript/translation/__lang__", "prioritizeHls": false, "streams": "", "poster": null}' data-bumper-metadata='null' data-autoadvance-enabled="False" data-poster='null' tabindex="-1" > <div class="focus_grabber first"></div> <div class="tc-wrapper"> <div class="video-wrapper"> <span tabindex="0" class="spinner" aria-hidden="false" aria-label="Loading video player"></span> <span tabindex="-1" class="btn-play fa fa-youtube-play fa-2x is-hidden" aria-hidden="true" aria-label="Play video"></span> <div class="video-player-pre"></div> <div class="video-player"> <div id="ce409fe5e6ec49f7ba47c6da4ef891b4"></div> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-error is-hidden">No playable video sources found.</h4> <h4 class="hd hd-4 video-hls-error is-hidden"> Your browser does not support this video format. 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<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@48a9d4c0b6a44457b35530e7793c4272" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Read: The Qualitative Research Process (2)</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@91dc15adc26242e18ea6efb63fea2bb4"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@91dc15adc26242e18ea6efb63fea2bb4" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Read: The Qualitative Research Process</span></strong></h3> <p></p> <p>This image gives an overview of the qualitative research process.</p> <p><img height="1000" width="800" src="/assets/courseware/v1/6d427f9ef0e820b9221586e2343e73fc/asset-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@asset+block/asset-v1_MITx_21A.819.1x_1T2020_type_asset_block_Research_Process.png" alt="Graphic depicting the research process, described in text below" /></p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">Your <strong>research topic and questions </strong>will be formed by your interest in a particular field or area, circulatinng ideas about issues or topics in that area, and especially what has been covered in the literature by previous scholars and what areas still need further exploration and illumination. </p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">As you work, you should constantly be <strong>writing memos.</strong> Think of these memos as a way to organize your thoughts, ideas, and reactions in a way that can be referenced later. These memos are not the fieldnotes or the interview transcripts. They are commentaries on the data you are collecting. The fieldnotes (descriptions of what is being observed, as well as descriptions of how the data is being collected, the interview processes and events) and transcripts are the primary data. As you conduct research you are constantly having new ideas and making connections, most of which you will probably forget if you don't preserve them in writing. These memos don't have to be extensive, and they don't have to contain fully formed and substantiated ideas, but they do need to be clear and organized. As you progress in your research, you will be able to refer back to them, and even incorporate some of this writing into longer more polished drafts. </p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">Once you have a research topic, you can start to identify the <strong>population</strong> - the people and settings - you will study. You can think of these individuals as experts on your topic who possess information you need to know, and you need their unique perspectives and insights. Each individual will bring a new perspective to the table. It's your job to ensure that you are sampling a diverse group such that you can be reasonably sure you are capturing all the possible different experiences and interpretations. </p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">Your research topic and questions, as well as insights from the literature will drive the creation of your interview protocol, which you will use as an instrument for <strong>data collection. </strong>As you are conducting and processing interviews, you will be continuously refining this protocol to ensure that you are able to touch on all parts of the topic that arise. After conducting an interview, you will do a first <strong>process of the data</strong> by translating the conversation into text transcripts that can be read, coded, commented upon, and systematically <strong>analyzed. </strong>As you work through this process, you will start to identify and refine <strong>concepts</strong> and variables (variations in aspects or dimensions of the data or situations) that describe or encompass the situated events and interpretations that are coming up in your interviews.</p> <p style="font-size: 16px;">These concepts that you are creating, informed by the analysis that is ongoing alongside and simultaneous with the data collection, will help you to narrow your research question, and/or discover interesting areas to explore that have not yet been described. Thus, this form of research is really a process of moving through all of these steps in concurrent and recurrent cycles as you explore new territories of research, and process these discoveries into solid concepts, questions, and emergent theories about how the area of social life you are describing actually works. </p> </div> </div> </div> </div>

<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@4f287619a0e246898733767beec20118" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Readings</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@a103c1001264447e8e8bb3277aff8a52"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@a103c1001264447e8e8bb3277aff8a52" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Readings</span></strong></h3> <p></p> <p>If you'd like to learn more about grounded theory, analytic induction and theoretical work, please review the following readings. </p> <p><a href="https://courses.mitxonline.mit.edu/asset-v1:MITxT+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@asset+block@glaser_strauss_Discover_1.pdf" target="_blank"><b>Kathy Charmaz, <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Constructing Grounded Theory</span>, Sage Publications, 2006. Chapters 3 - 4</b></a></p> <p><a href="https://courses.mitxonline.mit.edu/asset-v1:MITxT+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@asset+block@Charmaz_2006_chpts3_4.pdf" target="_blank"><b>Glaser & Strauss, <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Qualitative Methodology & Theory, "Discovery of Substantive Theory"</span></b></a></p> </div> </div> </div> </div>

<div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-vertical" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="vertical" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@vertical+block@57ce4f333e6447eda2ec676a02e1077d" data-init="VerticalStudentView" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">Activity: Describe Your Work</h2> <div class="vert-mod"> <div class="vert vert-0" data-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@f80e57d539b84b049338575d996e1587"> <div class="xblock xblock-public_view xblock-public_view-html xmodule_display xmodule_HtmlBlock" data-runtime-version="1" data-course-id="course-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021" data-graded="False" data-block-type="html" data-has-score="False" data-usage-id="block-v1:MITx+21A.819.2x+3T2021+type@html+block@f80e57d539b84b049338575d996e1587" data-init="XBlockToXModuleShim" data-runtime-class="LmsRuntime" data-request-token="153592442bc111f0a8e70e09798aea1b"> <script type="json/xblock-args" class="xblock-json-init-args"> {"xmodule-type": "HTMLModule"} </script> <h3 style="background-color: #28a6de; font-size: 20px; color: #256a97; height: 35px; text-indent: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-radius: 3px;"><strong><span style="color: #ffffff;">Exercise: Describe Your Work</span></strong></h3> <p>We have spent the first part of the course reviewing the role of qualitative methods and grounded theory in providing researchers with tools to explore communicated meanings in different contexts and settings. What area are you studying? What is your guiding research question? How do you plan to use qualitative methods in your project? Are there particular scholars or literature you are interested in and with whom you are interested in conversing? </p> <p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Self-reflection is a good practice to help you to learn to use the tools you are being taught in this course.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Try writing a question or idea you had about the topics we've just covered. Think of different ways you might approach these issues.</p> <p></p> </div> </div> </div> </div>