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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">3.4.1 Evaluating Photographs</h2>
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<p>Photographs are powerful evidence. They can provide a wealth of information that would be impossible to convey with words. But what makes photographs powerful also makes them difficult to evaluate. Vivid images are captivating and seem to objectively capture a moment in time. For many students, seeing is believing. </p>
<p>This danger is pronounced today because software can manipulate photographs and anyone with an internet connection and a social media account can misrepresent when and where a photo was taken. It’s crucial to teach students to investigate photos. So, how can students figure out if photos are legitimate? In the video below, San Francisco Unified teacher Valerie Ziegler describes how she makes analysis of images a central part of her teaching.</p>
<p>You can watch the full interview with Professor Justin Reich and Valerie Ziegler <a href="https://youtu.be/jK9A72LTNl8" target="_blank">here.</a></p>
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<h3 class="hd hd-2">Voices in Practice: Teaching Civic Online Reasoning</h3>
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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">3.4.2 Reverse Image Searches</h2>
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<p>Most searches start with a string of words that operate as search queries. In a reverse image search, you enter an image as your search query in order to try to find its origins. Tools for reverse image searches include TinyEye and Google Images. (You can learn how to use <a href="https://help.tineye.com/article/265-tineye-tutorial" target="_blank">TinEye here </a>and <a href="https://support.google.com/websearch/answer/1325808?co=GENIE.Platform%3DDesktop&hl=en&oco=0" target="_blank">Google Images reverse image search here</a>.)</p>
<p>Conducting a reverse image search is not guaranteed to work for every photo, and some are better candidates than others. If a photo doesn’t appear elsewhere online, conducting a reverse image search isn’t likely to provide more information about the image. That said, conducting a reverse image search can take just seconds, so it’s worth trying out when we want to determine the veracity of a photo.</p>
<p>Modeling is a powerful strategy for showing students how to use this technology. For example, you could show students how you would right click the image (in Google Chrome) and select “Search Google for Image.” </p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">president Obama visits Arlington Cemetery this weekend in pouring rain. He surprised numerous families with kind words. That's a president. <a href="https://t.co/XIpSBDeiQ9">pic.twitter.com/XIpSBDeiQ9</a></p>— lady browneyes73 (@ladybrowneyes55) <a href="https://twitter.com/ladybrowneyes55/status/1062039577483972612?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">November 12, 2018</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"> <iframe width="850" height="478" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xRKeujuJz84" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen=""></iframe><br /><em>Please note the video has no sound.</em></p>
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<p><strong></strong></p>
<p><strong>If it looks like a photograph has only appeared on unreliable sites, that should raise questions about whether the photograph is legitimate. If a photo has appeared on a trustworthy site, like a reputable news organization, then go to that site. Reputable sites are good places to learn more about a photograph and to investigate whether someone has accurately characterized it. Some of the most widely distributed hoax photographs have been exposed by news outlets or fact checking organizations, so these sites can be useful to consult as well. </strong></p>
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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">3.4.3 Evaluating Videos</h2>
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<p style="text-align: left;">Videos are also powerful evidence. Like photos, they can be easily altered or fabricated. Individuals can also lie or be mistaken about a video’s origins or take a clip out of context to make it appear to be something it is not. </p>
<p style="text-align: left;">For example, this Twitter user claimed that protesters in Hong Kong wear projectors to avoid facial recognition:
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet"><p lang="en" dir="ltr">Protestors in Hong Kong have got wearable projectors to avoid facial recognition 😮 <a href="https://t.co/fvjLn9hjdn">pic.twitter.com/fvjLn9hjdn</a></p>— Lee Mifsud (@LeeMifsud) <a href="https://twitter.com/LeeMifsud/status/1180605558992318465?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">October 5, 2019</a></blockquote> <script async src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
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<p style="text-align: left;"><strong><span style="font-size: 1em;">In reality, <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/hong-kong-protesters-projectors/" target="_blank">this video is from an art project.</a></span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 1em;">Video sharing and social media sites have dramatically increased the availability of videos online and have lowered barriers for posting videos. Almost anyone with an internet connection can upload a video without restriction. There are few checks on the kinds of things that people can upload, so it’s crucial to teach students how to investigate whether videos are what people say they are.</span></p>
<p>To do this, we need to show students how to look for what other sources say about a claim. One strategy is to do a keyword search based on the content of the video.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><iframe width="850" height="478" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3VanSm7bhA0" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
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<i>Please note the video has no sound.</i></p>
<p>If the keyword search turns up results, look to see if the video has been posted on reputable sites. If so, use those sites to learn more about the video and watch the full video yourself.</p>
<p>However, if the video has only been posted on sites of doubtful reliability, it could be a sign that the video is bogus. </p>
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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">3.4.4 Crash Course: Evaluating Photos & Videos</h2>
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<p>In this <a href="https://cor.stanford.edu/videos/evaluating-photos-videos/" target="_blank">Crash Course video</a>, John Green does a deep dive into Evaluating Photos and Videos. The video includes several worked examples of evaluating these kinds of evidence. </p>
<p><a href="https://cor.stanford.edu/videos/evaluating-photos-videos/" target="_blank">Click here</a> to watch the video. After you finish watching the video, return to edX and go on to the next section.</p>
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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">3.4.5 Evaluating Data and Infographics</h2>
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<p><strong>Statistics and infographics allow us to quickly understand broad phenomenon, relationships, and trends. However, they can also be used to deceive.</strong> Unscrupulous organizations and individuals know that many people believe that numerical data is better than other forms of evidence and will use dubious graphics to mislead credulous readers. Still others may unintentionally misinterpret data. It is easy to create charts, graphs, and infographics, resulting in an abundance of online data displays with credibility that varies tremendously. Students need help understanding how to evaluate statistics and infographics online. </p>
<p>When encountering data online, students should always ask themselves several questions. </p>
<p>1. <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Who’s behind this data? Is that source reliable?</span> Social media posts, blogs, and comments on news stories often present data without attribution. If no source is cited, students should know to disregard the information unless its source can be determined. </p>
<p>However, if a source is cited, students must learn to investigate whether the person or group who produced the data is reliable. Students should consider whether the source is <span style="text-decoration: underline;">authoritative</span>. Does the person or organization have expertise in the topic? And do they have a strong reputation for research and data analysis? If not, students should be skeptical of the data the organization has produced. </p>
<p>Students should also consider the <span style="text-decoration: underline;">perspective</span> of the person or organization that produced the data. If they have a strong stake in the issue, students should learn to consider how that might affect the data they chose to present and the ways they presented it. This doesn’t mean that organizations with a clear perspective are necessarily unreliable, but a clear stake in an issue can affect reliability. A strong financial or ideological stake in an issue, for example, might affect how an organization presents data on the issue, either favoring evidence that supports their position or discounting evidence that challenges their perspective. </p>
<p style="text-align: left;">2. <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Does the evidence support the claim being made? Is it relevant?</span> Students need to consider whether the data is relevant to the claims being made. Does it actually say what the author claims it does? Social media and the blogosphere are rife with data that don't actually support what the author claims. Dishonest actors know that the mere existence of a link is enough to convince many users that their claims are backed by good data, when in fact, the linked data isn’t what they described. Students need to learn to follow the link to investigate the source of the data. </p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet">
<p lang="en" dir="ltr" style="text-align: center;">Poll shows most Americans own guns. 👎😟😱<a href="https://t.co/pusjq07Tig">https://t.co/pusjq07Tig</a></p>
— Mason D. Simpson (@masondsimpson) <a href="https://twitter.com/masondsimpson/status/1245468097756053505?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">April 1, 2020</a></blockquote>
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<p style="padding-left: 30px; text-align: left;"><em>Despite this user’s claim that most Americans own guns, the Gallup poll discussed in the linked news article found that most Americans <span style="text-decoration: underline;">who own guns</span> say they do so for personal safety</em></p>
<p>Even if the data itself is legitimate, students must consider whether the conclusions that an author draws are warranted. Has a blogger taken the data out of context? Does a post on Reddit draw conclusions from the data that are too broad? Has the author misinterpreted the findings from a study? </p>
<blockquote class="twitter-tweet">
<p lang="en" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;">Consistent with data in graph, NY Times reports that bar re-openings are associated with increased Covid-19 infections.<a href="https://t.co/wvSDrJ9ekq">https://t.co/wvSDrJ9ekq</a> <a href="https://t.co/EErLbFRp1V">pic.twitter.com/EErLbFRp1V</a></p>
— Amihai Glazer (@AmihaiGlazer) <a href="https://twitter.com/AmihaiGlazer/status/1278746752422539264?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">July 2, 2020</a></blockquote>
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<p style="padding-left: 30px; text-align: left;"><em>This trend line is over-extrapolated. There is a very weak correlation between the two variables (at best). And, no, binge drinking is not an indicator of bar re-openings. </em></p>
<p>3. Is the data presented accurately? Charts and infographics can often distort and misrepresent legitimate data. Infographics frequently use convincing images that distract viewers from the data or misrepresent it. Charts can also be manipulated to distort data. One of the most common strategies is to deceive viewers by altering the scales of charts. For example, expanding the scale of a chart can give the illusion that a phenomenon is much smaller or less important than it is. Conversely, restricting the range of a scale can make a change or effect appear much larger than it is in reality.</p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2014/09/12/chart-week-more-students-are-graduating-high-school-ever" target="_blank"><img height="485" width="497" src="/assets/courseware/v1/5a4722d3f3446e13f5c5d6e4094d9190/asset-v1:MITx+0.504x+3T2020+type@asset+block/hsgraduationchart.png" alt="Truncated y-axis" /></a></p>
<p style="padding-left: 30px; text-align: left;"><em>This misleading graph uses a scale that intentionally exaggerates the actual change in graduation rates.</em></p>
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<h2 class="hd hd-2 unit-title">3.4.6 Crash Course: Evaluating Data & Infographics</h2>
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<p>In this <a href="https://cor.stanford.edu/videos/data-infographics" target="_blank">Crash Course video</a>, John Green does a deep dive into Evaluating Data and Infographics. The video includes several worked examples of evaluating these types of evidence. </p>
<p><a href="https://cor.stanford.edu/videos/data-infographics/" target="_blank">Click here</a> to watch the video. After you finish watching the video, return to edX and go on to the next section.</p>
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